Abstract

Students often face challenges in understanding abstract concepts in graph theory, which may stem from insufficient visual aids to support the learning process. To address this issue, integrating augmented reality (AR) technology into e-modules has been proposed as a solution. AR can enhance the effectiveness and appeal of learning materials, creating a more engaging and interactive learning environment. This research aims to develop an AR-based e-module for graph theory with a focus on problem-solving, ensuring its validity, practicality, and effectiveness. The study employs a Research and Development approach using the Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE) model. Data analysis involves validation, practicality, and effectiveness tests. The results reveal that during the development stage, the e-module was validated by subject matter experts, media experts, and practitioners, achieving high average ratings (overall validity = 3.20 in the development stage; 3.65 in the evaluation stage). During the implementation stage, student trials demonstrated that the e-module is feasible for use (overall practicality = 3.38). At the site level, inferential tests showed statistically significant pre–post improvement at each institution (all p < 0.001), with large within-subject effect sizes and medium to high normalized gains: Universitas Nahdlatul Ulama Sunan Giri (UNUGIRI) d_z = 3.03,g = 0.736 (high); Universitas Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia Ronggolawe (UNIROW) d_z = 1.52,g = 0.433 (medium); Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia Bojonegoro (IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro) d_z = 1.73,g = 0.680 (medium); Universitas Islam Darul ‘Ulum (UNISDA) d_z = 2.53,g = 0.780 (high). These findings strongly indicate that the AR-based e-module is valid and practical, and it is associated with statistically robust and educationally meaningful learning gains across all participating institutions.