Abstract: This paper contributes to the discussion about effects of technology on writing by discussing the positive impacts that “technology tools” such as voice recognition software and text-to-speech software can have on all students, including individuals with disabilities. It suggests that teachers adhere to the principles of the Universal Design for Learning by making these tools readily available to all student writers as a means to foster usability and accessibility within the writing classroom. Potential benefits of incorporating these technology options include; an increase in motivation/self-efficacy regarding written compositions, an increase in student independence, an increase in the authenticity of the writing environment, and an increase in the amount of writing output that more accurately reflects students’ abilities.

Teaser Text: Writing classrooms across the world are finding that students’ capacity for working memory is in limited supply. Learn about ways that “technology tools” can free up your students’ working memory.

Consider the following scenario: Ms. Parker’s writing classroom is full of excitement as they are dismissed to begin their independent writing assignment. They have spent the last few days reviewing numerous mentor texts, participating in different types of classroom discussion, co-constructing a classroom model, and engaging in various forms of brainstorming/prewriting activities.

Hadley is eager to begin working, for she has been writing this story in her head for almost a full day now. As students return to their seats to begin writing and/or typing their initial draft, Hadley begins as she has always planned to…

Boom! Crash! The students froze in their seats. When they finally gained the courage to get up and look out the window, their eyes nearly popped out of their head!

After ten minutes of typing, reading, thinking, retyping, rereading, and rethinking, she has finally produced the attention grabber she has always envisioned. Motivation remains intact.

About ten minutes after that, she smiles to herself as she finishes wrapping up the first idea she had jotted down on her graphic organizer. As Hadley prepares herself to begin re-reading her draft from the beginning (a strategy that was modeled during the classroom co-construction), she catches a glimpse of Easton’s paper. He has already filled up half a page. Slight (and all-to-familiar) motivational setback.

She continues reading. As she concludes her second idea, Hadley starts to realize that the story on her paper is not matching the one she’s been carefully developing in her head. The story in her head is colorful and dramatic. The story on her computer screen is becoming dull and vague. She’s been working for upwards of a half hour now and all she has to show for it is 5 unsatisfying sentences.

How could this be? In the last 30 minutes, Hadley has mentally verbalized dozens of sentences. Yet, when she goes to type them, they do not reflect her ability to compose a descriptive, well-developed story. Frustration ensues.

The teacher tells the class that it is time to save their work and log off. The excitement that has been building inside of Hadley for the last 72 hours has now been crushed in just 45 minutes time (yet again).

In this scenario, Hadley is a fictional character. But, her experience in Ms. Parker’s writing classroom is one that many students across the globe can relate to. So why was Hadley unable to accurately represent her ideas in writing?

The answer to this question can be explained by any number of reasons including but not at all limited to; her keyboarding abilities, her familiarity with the word processing software functions, her working memory, her processing speed, her encoding skills, her ability to reread what she has written, her motivation, and her self-efficacy.

Fortunately for Hadley, with the technology of the 21st century at her fingertips, there are a plethora of technological tools available to her that have the potential to enhance her written performance.

Whether the effects of their implementation lessen the impact of her poor keyboarding abilities, decrease the strain of her working memory, accommodate for her limited encoding skills, allow her to better process her own written response, or increase her motivation/self-perception, the influence of such is likely to be positive.

In the sections to follow, I will introduce 2 features of technology that have the potential to enhance the writing experience of any student writer, especially for those who struggle to accurately represent their ideas in text. These easy-to-implement “technology tools” can be used to support student writers as they work to construct written compositions on the computer.

Voice Recognition Software

Voice recognition software is an alternative to typing on a keyboard. Put simply, you talk to the computer and your words appear on the screen. It allows for users to bypass the keyboard and use their voice to enter text.

According to Wiseman (2000), and arguably according to common sense, “all school children should be given opportunity and support for developing proper and efficient keyboarding techniques before they are required to produce any quantity of work on a word processor” (p. 8). Subsequently, “This training should not be neglected until children have developed bad habits which will be very difficult for them to break” (Wiseman, 2000, p. 8).

Nevertheless, the reality of today’s world remains that most students are exposed to some form of typing long before they receive any formalized training in school. Exposure to popular devices such as tablets and cell phones encourage children to practice unsupported typing techniques such as the “hunt and peck” method.

Even within schools that make a point to be proactive with the early keyboarding instruction, neglect of proper training still occurs as a result of “(a) limited equipment due to its cost,(b) scheduling problems, (c) an inappropriate reliance on keyboarding tutorial software, and, (d) teachers unprepared for teaching the skill” (Wiseman, 2000, p. 8).

For these reasons, it remains likely that at least one student in your classrooms finds themselves working in front of a keyboard with a limited ability to operate it efficiently. Not only is this a source of frustration for some students, but it also increases the expectations of one’s working memory.

Medwell and Wray (2008) note that “Our working memory, unlike long-term memory which can store memories for years, is limited in the quantity of information and the time it can hold this information to carry out tasks” (p. 41). Furthermore, “If working memory is needed for lower level tasks of handwriting or finding keys on a keyboard then students will be limited in their ability to engage in the many aspects of writing: idea creation, vocabulary selection, composition and revision” (Medwell and Wray, 2008, p. 41).

Moreover, as outlined by Korostyshevskiy (2018), the “ability to communicate using spoken language occurs naturally in children earlier than they learn how to use written language” (p. 170). He further states that, “Throughout persons’ lives, their ability to use spoken language is being continuously maintained and further developed” (Korostyshevskiy, 2018, p. 170). As a result, children have greater control over their use of spoken language and therefore a greater capacity to form and organize their thoughts orally than they do in written form (regardless of how well they can type).

By allowing students the option to use voice recognition software when composing on the computer, teachers have the potential to free up working memory in the minds of their students, to allow for their students to rely on their most well-developed communication systems, and to decrease student frustration levels, which is likely to increase their motivation levels in turn - all while supporting best practice of student choice.

In a world where people can control lights and security systems with their voices alone, how can we deny students the option to use these same voices to express themselves through writing?

Text To Speech Software (TTS)

Text to speech software operates precisely how the name predicts by converting text into spoken voice output through the use of synthetic speech.

While TTS was originally designed to improve the accessibility of electronic information to those who are blind and/or visually impaired, Peters and Bell (2007) recognize that, “TTS software can be beneficial to more than just the blind and low-vision members of the population” (p. 26-27) by indicating that; “Children and adults who are learning to read for the first time can benefit from hearing a book or passage read aloud” (p. 27), “Reluctant readers of all ages also can benefit from the ability to toggle TTS software on and off on demand to meet their particular needs” (p. 27), and “People learning a second language also can benefit, especially if the software is sufficiently sophisticated to provide a good vocalization of the sound of the second language when spoken” (p. 27). These benefits apply to the reading back of one’s own writing just as they would to the reading of storybook or online periodical.

It is a widely accepted belief that some people better process information by listening to it read orally as opposed to reading it themselves. It is another widely accepted belief that reviewing one’s written work (revising and editing) is an integral part of the writing process. In combining these two widely accepted beliefs, it is safe to assume that by providing students with the option to have written work read back to them using TTS, these auditory learners are given a more equal opportunity to produce the writing in which they intended.

As was also the case with voice recognition software, providing student authors (struggling readers in particular) the option to use TTS allows for them to free up the working memory it takes for them to decode text and use it to focus on the structure and content of their composition instead.

Other students might find the TTS a useful tool to use while proofreading. We’ve all experienced a student reading back what they think they wrote when it differs from the reality of what they actually wrote. The use of TTS can eliminate this bias that occurs when the author already knows what they intended to say.

In Conclusion

In today’s classroom, it seems as if the incorporation of the aforementioned “technology tools” has been widely accepted for use by individuals with disabilities, but why not add these to the technological toolkit of all students?

By allowing students the option to use voice recognition and text to speech software, we are fostering the concepts of usability and accessibility, which lie at the heart of the Universal Design for Learning. The use of these tools support best practices by facilitating a more usable learning environment for a broader population of participants, and by allowing students to rely on their areas of strength on their path to skill acquisition.

We need to allow students like Hadley the autonomy to utilize these tools as they deem appropriate. Not only do they help to increase student independence, but they also provide students with an experience that more authentically reflects how they will encounter writing in the “real world”.

More to Explore

FREE Voice Recognition Software Resources:

• Google Voice Typing (embedded within the “Tools” of Google Docs)
• Speechnotes (available through one-click installation in the Chrome WebStore)
• Apple Dictation (embedded within the “System Preferences” of a Mac computer)
• Windows Speech Recognition (embedded within “Ease of Access” accessories of a Windows computer)

FREE Text-to-Speech Software Resources:

• Natural Reader (free online software download)
• Balabolka (free online software download)
• SnapRead (available through one-click installation in the Chrome Webstore)
• Speech Selection (available within the “Accessibility” features of iOS X devices)

 

References

Korostyshevskiy, V. (2018). Spoken Language and Fear of the Blank Page. Adult Learning, (4), 170. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsbl&AN=RN617778577&site=eds-live&scope=site

Peters, T., & Bell, L. (2007). Choosing and using text-to-speech software. Computers In Libraries, (27), 26-29. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-159331179/choosing-and-using-text-to-speech-software

Medwell, J., & Wray, D. (2008). Handwriting—a forgotten language skill? Language and Education, 22(1), 34–47. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37143265_Handwriting_-_A_Forgotten_Language_Skill

Wiseman, G. (2000, May 1). Keys at Their Fingertips: A Study Supporting Development of a Resource Package for the Teaching of Touch-Keyboarding Skills in Upper Elementary Classrooms Equipped with Portable Keyboards. Retrieved from https://search-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED472517&site=eds-live&scope=site